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Plant Cell, Vol. 10, 1479-1488, September 1998, Copyright © 1998, American Society of Plant Physiologists
Phytochrome E Influences Internode Elongation and Flowering Time in Arabidopsis
Paul F. Devlin1,a,
Samita R. Patela, and
Garry C. Whitelama
a Department of Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, United Kingdom
Correspondence to:
Garry C. Whitelam, GCW1{at}le.ac.uk (E-mail), 44-116-252-2791 (fax).
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ABSTRACT |
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From a screen of M2 seedlings derived from  -mutagenesis of seeds doubly null for phytochromes phyA and phyB, we isolated a mutant lacking phyE. The PHYE gene of the selected mutant, phyE-1, was found to contain a 1-bp deletion at a position equivalent to codon 726, which is predicted to result in a premature stop at codon 739. Immunoblot analysis showed that the phyE protein was undetectable in the phyE-1 mutant. In the phyA- and phyB-deficient background, phyE deficiency led to early flowering, elongation of internodes between adjacent rosette leaves, and reduced petiole elongation. This is a phenocopy of the response of phyA phyB seedlings to end-of-day far-red light treatments. Furthermore, a phyE deficiency attenuated the responses of phyA phyB seedlings to end-of-day far-red light treatments. Monogenic phyE mutants were indistinguishable from wild-type seedlings. However, phyB phyE double mutants flowered earlier and had longer petioles than did phyB mutants. The elongation and flowering responses conferred by phyE deficiency are typical of shade avoidance responses to the low red/far-red ratio. We conclude that in conjunction with phyB and to a lesser extent with phyD, phyE functions in the regulation of the shade avoidance syndrome.
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INTRODUCTION |
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Plants are exquisitely sensitive to alterations in their light environment. Through the action of specialized regulatory photoreceptors, plants monitor the intensity, quality, direction, and duration of light and use this information to modulate all aspects of their development. The red light (R)– and far-red light (FR)–absorbing phytochromes and the blue/UV-A light–absorbing cryptochromes play the predominant role in light signal perception (reviewed in Whitelam and Devlin 1998  ). The phytochromes are chromoproteins that are reversibly photochromic and exist in either of two stable forms, the R-absorbing Pr form or the FR-absorbing Pfr form. Both are interconvertible by light. Light signals perceived by the phytochromes are important in the regulation of seed germination, seedling deetiolation, and photoperiodic timing and also in the detection of the proximity of neighboring vegetation (see Smith 1994 ; Whitelam and Devlin 1998 ).
All higher plants studied, as well as several lower plants, possess a family of discrete phytochromes. The apophytochromes are encoded by a small family of divergent genes (see Mathews and Sharrock 1997 ). In the flowering plants, there appear to be three major phytochrome types, phyA, phyB, and phyC, that are encoded by the PHYA, PHYB, and PHYC genes (Mathews and Sharrock 1997 ). Phylogenetic analysis indicates that these genes are well separated from one another in the earliest flowering plants, suggesting that the gene duplications from which they arose occurred near the origin of flowering plants (Mathews et al. 1995 ; Mathews and Sharrock 1997 ). In dicots, additional PHY genes are found, perhaps the products of more recent gene duplications. In particular, dicots are characterized by the possession of PHYB-like pairs of genes that are considered to have arisen independently in different taxa (Mathews et al. 1995 ). Also, PHYE-like sequences have so far not been detected in monocots (see Mathews and Sharrock 1997 ).
The phytochrome family of Arabidopsis is the most thoroughly characterized. Arabidopsis has five phytochromes, phyA to phyE (Sharrock and Quail 1989 ; Clack et al. 1994 ). The PHYB and PHYD genes, which encode proteins that share ~80% amino acid sequence identity, are the product of a gene duplication in a recent progenitor of the Cruciferae. The products of these genes are more related to the product of the PHYE gene (~55% identity) than to the products of either the PHYA or PHYC gene (~47% identity). Thus, the PHYB, PHYD, and PHYE genes are considered to form a subgroup of the Arabidopsis PHY gene family (Goosey et al. 1997 ).
Elucidating the precise regulatory functions of the members of the phytochrome family is a crucial step in understanding their molecular mechanisms of action. Through the identification of null mutations, the functions of phyA, phyB, and phyD are being determined. Mutants deficient in phyA display a characteristic loss of the high-irradiance responses that control seedling deetiolation under FR. These responses include the inhibition of hypocotyl elongation, the opening and expansion of cotyledons, the synthesis of anthocyanin, and the regulation of the expression of several genes (Nagatani et al. 1993 ; Parks and Quail 1993 ; Whitelam et al.. 1993 ; Johnson et al. 1994 ; Barnes et al. 1996 ). For seedlings growing in the natural environment, phyA deficiency results in failure of seedlings to deetiolate fully under FR-rich conditions, such as those found under vegetational shade (Yanovsky et al. 1995 ).
Seedlings of mutants lacking phyB display a marked insensitivity to R for many responses, including the inhibition of hypocotyl elongation and the opening and expansion of cotyledons (Koornneef et al. 1980 ; Reed et al. 1993 ). Adult phyB plants have elongated petioles and are early flowering (e.g., Nagatani et al. 1991 ; Halliday et al. 1994 ). This phenotype is reminiscent of the shade avoidance syndrome of responses that is displayed by wild-type seedlings exposed to low R/FR ratio light (e.g., Robson et al. 1993 ; Whitelam and Devlin 1997 ). Furthermore, phyB seedlings display attenuated responses to low R/FR (e.g., Robson et al. 1993 ; Halliday et al. 1994 ). In wild-type plants, the shade avoidance syndrome of responses can be effectively induced by pulses of FR given at the end of each photoperiod. These end-of-day (EOD) FR responses are also greatly attenuated in phyB null seedlings (Nagatani et al. 1991 ; Devlin et al. 1996 ). Taken together, these findings implicate phyB as a major contributor to shade avoidance. Because seedlings null for phyB are not completely devoid of responses to low R/FR or EOD FR, the action of other phytochromes in these responses is indicated (see Devlin et al. 1996 ).
The recent identification of a naturally occurring mutation in the PHYD gene of the Arabidopsis Wassilewskija (Ws) ecotype (Aukerman et al. 1997 ) has provided evidence that phyD performs a role similar to phyB. To examine phyD functions, a wild-type PHYD gene was introgressed into Ws, and the mutant gene from Ws was introgressed into the Landsberg erecta (Ler) ecotype. In both genetic backgrounds, monogenic phyD mutants show a slightly reduced inhibition of hypocotyl elongation, compared with wild-type seedlings, after growth under either R or white light (Aukerman et al. 1997 ). This effect of phyD deficiency was more evident in a phyB mutant background in which the phyB phyD double mutant seedlings displayed hypocotyl lengths that were significantly longer than those of monogenic phyB mutants. Furthermore, phyD deficiency greatly reduced the small residual hypocotyl elongation response to EOD FR displayed by phyB mutants. In mature plants, phyD deficiency was apparent only in the phyB mutant background: phyB phyD double mutant seedlings had longer petioles and were earlier flowering than phyB seedlings. These data indicate that phyD plays a role in shade avoidance responses and that there is conditional redundancy among the phytochromes (Aukerman et al. 1997 ).
There is evidence that phytochromes other than phyB and phyD play a role in the perception of R/FR ratio signals. We showed previously that phyA phyB double mutants display increased internode elongation and early flowering in response to EOD FR treatments (Devlin et al. 1996 ). More recently, we have established that phyA phyB phyD triple mutants also display the internode elongation response and an attenuated flowering response to EOD FR as well as responding to reductions in the R/FR ratio (P.F. Devlin, P.R.H. Robson, S.R. Patel, L. Wester, R.A. Sharrock, and G.C. Whitelam, manuscript submitted). These observations implicate the actions of phyC and/or phyE in these responses.
We have used the internode elongation and early-flowering responses of phyA phyB double mutants to EOD FR treatments as the basis of a screen for new phytochrome mutants. Here, we describe the isolation of a phyE mutant and the phenotypic effects of phyE deficiency. As is the case for phyD, the effects of phyE deficiency are most evident in the absence of phyB. However, phyE regulates a discrete subset of responses to low R/FR.
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RESULTS |
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Isolation of the phyE Mutant
The phyE mutant was isolated after -mutagenesis of phyA phyB seed and a two-stage screen of the M2 populations. In the first stage, we screened for individuals displaying early-flowering and/or elongated "rosette" internodes. Candidate mutants were identified and allowed to self, and their seed were collected. In the second stage, the progeny of individuals selected in the first stage were screened for attenuated internode elongation and flowering responses to EOD FR treatments. This screen derived from our observations that in response to EOD FR treatments, the phyA phyB double mutant displays a marked acceleration in flowering time and a significant promotion of elongation of the internodes between rosette leaves (Devlin et al. 1996 ). Before mutagenesis, the phyA phyB double mutant was introduced into the late-flowering co mutant background (see Devlin et al. 1996 ). The co mutation leads to late flowering under long photoperiods (Koornneef et al. 1991 ) and so extends the period of vegetative development in the first stage of the screen. In this way, the likelihood of observing both early-flowering mutants and elongated-internode mutants is increased.
The first stage of the screen yielded numerous early-flowering mutants and three elongated-internode mutants that also flowered early. Of these three, one displayed a severely attenuated response to EOD FR treatments in the second stage of the screen (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
Regulation of Internode Elongation by phyE.
phyA phyB and phyA phyB phyE (in the co background) seedlings were grown for 60 days under 8-hr-light and 16-hr-dark cycles (control) or under the same conditions with 15-min EOD FR treatments (+EOD FR).
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We determined the nucleotide sequence of the PHYE gene from the elongated-internode mutant and from the parental phyA phyB line. The sequence of the PHYE gene amplified from the parental line (Ler ecotype) differed from the published PHYE sequence (Columbia [Col] ecotype) at one point. Nucleotides 1664 to 1669 read GGAAT T in PHYE from Ler as opposed to GAAT T T in PHYE from Col. This polymorphism changes codons 498 and 499 from Glu and Phe in Col to Gly and Ile in Ler. Sequencing of the PHYE gene from the elongated internode mutant revealed a deletion of a single base pair at position 2350 (Figure 2). This deletion causes a frameshift after codon 726 that is predicted to result in a premature stop at codon 739 (Figure 2). We refer to this as the phyE-1 mutation. The phyE-1 deletion disrupts a HinfI restriction enzyme site, which has provided a convenient diagnostic test in the isolation of the monogenic phyE mutant after a backcross of phyA phyB phyE with wild-type Ler.
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Figure 2.
Sequences from the Second Exon of the Wild-Type PHYE Gene and the phyE-1 Deletion Allele.
Exons are represented as boxes. Untranslated regions at the 5' and 3' ends of transcripts are shown in black. Hatched lines indicate the position of the displayed sequence. The nucleotide deleted in the phyE-1 sequence is boxed in the PHYE sequence.
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Immunochemical Analysis of phyE Protein
Protein extracts from phyA phyB and phyA phyB phyE seedlings were subjected to immunoblot analysis by using monoclonal antibodies that are selective for phyC, phyD, or phyE (Somers et al. 1991 ; Hirschfeld et al. 1998 ). The phyC-selective or phyD-selective monoclonal antibodies detected bands of ~124 kD in samples from either phyA phyB or phyA phyB phyE (Figure 3). However, whereas the phyE-selective monoclonal antibodies detected a band of ~124 kD in samples from phyA phyB, this band was absent in samples from phyA phyB phyE seedlings (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Immunoblot Analyses of Phytochrome Protein Levels in phyA phyB co and phyA phyB phyE co Mutants.
Protein extracts, enriched by ammonium sulfate precipitation, from phyA phyB co plants (lane 1) and phyA phyB phyE co plants (lane 2) were resolved on SDS–polyacrylamide gels and electroblotted onto a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane. Blots were probed with monoclonal antibodies selective for phyC, phyD, or phyE. Numbers at left indicate molecular masses estimated from protein size standards.
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Effects of the phyE Mutation on Responses of phyA phyB to EOD FR
phyA phyB and phyA phyB phyE seedlings in the co background were grown under control conditions of 8-hr photoperiods or under EOD FR conditions in which each light-to-dark transition was immediately preceded by a 15-min pulse of FR. As previously reported, seedlings of the phyA phyB mutant showed a pronounced acceleration in flowering, recorded as the number of rosette leaves at bolting, in response to EOD FR treatment (Table 1 and Figure 1). In contrast, seedlings of the phyA phyB phyE mutant displayed a constitutively early-flowering phenotype under control conditions and only a very modest additional response to EOD FR treatments (Table 1 and Figure 1). This result indicates that phyE plays a major role in the flowering response to EOD FR of the phyA phyB mutant.
In response to EOD FR treatment, phyA phyB mutant seedlings also displayed a marked elongation of internodes between adjacent rosette leaves such that the plants assumed a caulescent habit (Table 2 and Figure 1). Seedlings of the phyA phyB phyE mutant displayed a constitutive caulescent growth habit under control conditions (Table 2 and Figure 1). Furthermore, in response to EOD FR treatments, the internodes of phyA phyB phyE seedlings displayed a greatly attenuated elongation response (Table 2 and Figure 1). These observations suggest that phyE plays a predominant role in mediating the internode elongation response to EOD FR of phyA phyB mutants. The small but significant residual promotion of internode elongation observed in the phyA phyB phyE mutant indicates the involvement of other phytochromes in this response.
We showed previously that in response to EOD FR treatments, phyA phyB seedlings show a reduction in petiole length (Devlin et al. 1996 ). This result contrasts with the behavior of wild-type seedlings in which EOD FR treatments led to an increase in petiole elongation. The EOD FR–induced reduction in phyA phyB petiole length accompanies the increased elongation of rosette internodes and has been proposed to result from a channeling of resources away from petiole elongation and into internode elongation. Compared with phyA phyB seedlings, phyA phyB phyE seedlings have short petioles after growth under control conditions (Table 3). Furthermore, the length of phyA phyB phyE petioles was not significantly altered in response to EOD FR treatments (Table 3). That phyA phyB phyE seedlings have constitutively short petioles is consistent with the observation that these seedlings also produce constitutively elongated internodes, supporting the proposal that the reduction in petiole length is a result of a channeling of resources away from petioles and into internode elongation.
Phenotype of the Monogenic phyE Mutant
Monogenic phyE mutant seedlings were selected after a backcross of phyA phyB phyE co with the Ler wild type. Seedlings that are wild type for PHYA were selected from the F2 population on the basis of a short hypocotyl after growth under FR. These seedlings were allowed to produce seed, and seed color was used as a marker for the presence of the co mutation (the co mutation is closely linked to the transparent testa tt4 mutation). Seedlings that were wild type for the PHYB gene were then selected from this F3 population on the basis of a short hypocotyl phenotype after growth under R. Seedlings homozygous for the phyE-1 mutation were selected by using as diagnostic a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test, which made use of the disruption of a HinfI site as a result of the phyE-1 deletion. Finally, seed color was checked for these F3 plants to select those descended from F2 plants that were likely to be homozygous for the wild-type CO gene. Variations of this strategy were used to select mutants that were doubly homozygous for phyA and phyE or phyB and phyE.
After growth under control conditions, monogenic phyE plants displayed a wild-type phenotype (data not shown). Similarly, the morphology of phyA phyE double mutants was indistinguishable from that of monogenic phyA seedlings (data not shown). However, the effects of phyE deficiency were readily detected in the phyB mutant background. It is well established that the phyB mutation leads to increased petiole and leaf length and decreased flowering time (e.g., Robson et al. 1993 ; Halliday et al. 1994 ). The phyB phyE double mutant displayed an even earlier flowering time and a further change in leaf shape (Figure 4 and Table 4). The most mature leaves of the phyB phyE mutant were less spatulate than those of the phyB mutant (or the wild type), having an appearance more similar to juvenile (or early adult) wild-type leaves (Figure 4). The shape of mature rosette leaves in the phyB phyE double mutant was similar to that seen in the phyA phyB double mutant (see Figure 4). For etiolated seedlings treated with monochromatic R, FR, or white light, phyE deficiency did not lead to any detectable mutant phenotype (data not shown).
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Figure 4.
Phenotypes of Wild-Type, phyB, and phyB phyE Plants.
Seedlings were grown for 60 days under 8-hr-light and 16-hr-dark cycles. WT, wild type.
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DISCUSSION |
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From a genetic screen for early-flowering, long-internode mutants that was performed in the phyA phyB double mutant background, we isolated a phyE mutant of Arabidopsis. The data presented here show that the phyE-1 mutation resulted from the deletion of nucleotide 2350 of the PHYE gene. This 1-bp deletion is predicted to cause premature termination of PHYE mRNA translation at codon 739, as a consequence of a frameshift. The predicted truncation of the phyE apoprotein, caused by the phyE-1 deletion, lies within the first part of the C-terminal domain of the polypeptide (see Quail 1997 ). Monoclonal antibodies raised to the C terminus of phyE failed to detect any phyE protein in extracts from the phyE-1 mutant. Although it is possible that a truncated phyE protein could accumulate in the phyE-1 mutant, such a truncated protein would be expected to be nonfunctional based on previous studies on the biological activity of truncated phyA and phyB proteins (see Quail 1997 ). It is proposed, therefore, that the phyE-1 mutant is null for phyE.
The screen from which the phyE-1 mutant was isolated derived from the observation that in response to EOD FR treatment, phyA phyB double mutants show a pronounced acceleration of flowering and a promotion elongation of the internodes between rosette leaves (Devlin et al. 1996 ). Compared with the parental line, the phyA phyB phyE triple mutant is constitutively early flowering and constitutively produces internodes between rosette leaves. Thus, the phenotype of phyA phyB phyE strongly resembles that of phyA phyB grown under EOD FR conditions. Therefore, phyE is implicated in the control of the responses. Significantly, the effects of phyE deficiency on flowering time are only detectable in a phyB background. In other studies, phyD has also been implicated in the control of flowering time, especially in mutants that are deficient in phyB. For plants maintained under continuous white light, the phyB phyD double mutant flowers earlier than does the monogenic phyB mutant (Aukerman et al. 1997 ). Furthermore, the phyA phyB phyD triple mutant flowers earlier than does phyA phyB under control 8-hr photoperiods, and although the response of phyA phyB phyD to EOD FR treatment is less than that of the phyA phyB mutant, the phyA phyB phyD triple mutant shows a clear acceleration in flowering in response to EOD FR treatment (P.F. Devlin, P.R.H. Robson, S.R. Patel, L. Wester, R.A. Sharrock, and G.C. Whitelam, manuscript submitted). It seems very likely that phyE is largely responsible for mediating the EOD FR flowering response of phyA phyB phyD seedlings. That phyB, phyD, and phyE all function to inhibit flowering suggests redundancy within the phytochrome family.
It is interesting that although phyA phyB phyD mutants retained a significant flowering response to EOD FR treatments, phyA phyB phyE mutants did not (Table 1). Thus, phyA phyB phyE mutants flowered almost as early under control conditions as they did under EOD FR conditions. This indicates that when phyE is absent, phyD (or phyC) is not able to exert a measurable effect on flowering time in the phyA phyB background. Because monogenic phyB mutants were early flowering, whereas monogenic phyE or phyD mutants flowered at the same time as did the wild type, it is clear that phyB plays the major role in the inhibition of flowering. Nevertheless, it appears that when phyB is absent, phyE plays a more dominant role than does phyD in this response.
Loss of phyE phenocopies the effect of EOD FR treatment on internode elongation in the phyA phyB double mutant. In contrast, the phyA phyB phyD triple mutant maintains a normal rosette habit after growth under control conditions and responds to EOD FR (P.F. Devlin, P.R.H. Robson, S.R. Patel, L. Wester, R.A. Sharrock, and G.C. Whitelam, manuscript submitted). In the phyA phyB mutant background, phyD deficiency led to increased petiole elongation. This observation suggests that in the photoregulation of elongation growth, phyE plays a role distinct from that of phyD. This distinction could reflect the differential spatial patterns of activity of the PHYD and PHYE promoters (Goosey et al. 1997 ).
For plants grown under control conditions, phyE monogenic or phyB phyE and phyA phyE double mutants displayed a rosette habit, and only phyA phyB phyE triple mutants had elongated internodes. This result indicates that the action of any one of phyA, phyB, or phyE is sufficient to suppress internode elongation. This apparent overlap of function suggests a significant degree of redundancy among these members of the phytochrome family. Also, phyD and phyC do not appear to play a significant role in maintaining the rosette habit.
The elongation of rosette internodes is always accompanied by a reduction in petiole elongation (see Devlin et al. 1996 ). This is the case for the phyA phyB phyE triple mutant grown under control conditions and for the phyA phyB double mutant given EOD FR treatments. This phenomenon is proposed to reflect a reallocation of resources from petioles to internodes.
The early-flowering and elongation growth responses mediated by phyB, phyD, and phyE are typical of the shade avoidance syndrome of responses elicited by low R/FR or by EOD FR treatments (see Smith and Whitelam 1997 ). Modeling of the phylogenetic relationships among the different members of the phytochrome family in dicots places phyB, phyD, and phyE within a distinct subgroup. It is tempting to speculate that neighbor detection and shade avoidance provided the selective pressure that led to the evolution of this subgroup of dicot phytochromes. Whether the actions of these three phytochromes alone can account for the whole of the shade avoidance syndrome in Arabidopsis awaits the isolation of phyC mutants as well as the creation of the phyB phyD phyE triple mutant and the phyA phyB phyD phyE quadruple mutant. Although the phyA phyB phyE triple mutant showed no significant flowering response to EOD FR treatment, it did display a small but significant promotion of internode elongation when this treatment was used, indicating the action of another phytochrome. The creation of the phyA phyB phyD phyE quadruple mutant will address the question of whether this represents the action of phyD or phyC. Furthermore, the identification of phytochrome-controlled responses remaining in the quadruple mutant will provide information on the role of phyC.
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METHODS |
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Plant Material and Mutagenesis
The co phyA phyB triple mutant (Arabidopsis thaliana) used as the parental line was described previously (Devlin et al. 1996 ). -Mutagenesis was performed at the University of Nottingham (Nottingham, UK). Ten thousand seeds were -irradiated with 90 kR -rays from a cesium-137 source. The seeds were planted in batches of 1000 in the greenhouse and allowed to self-pollinate; M2 seed was bulk harvested from each batch.
Mutant Screening
M2 seeds were sown in rows at a density of 1600 seed m-2 on a 3:1 mixture of peat compost–horticultural silver sand. Trays of seeds were chilled at 4°C for 4 days and then transferred to conditions of 16-hr-light and 8-hr-dark cycles at 22°C. Light was provided by Osram (Osram Ltd., St. Helens, UK) L65/80W/30 warm-white fluorescent tubes (photon irradiance, 400 to 700 nm, 100 µmol m-2 sec-1). Seedlings displaying elongated internodes and/or early flowering were labeled and allowed to self-pollinate. M3 seed collected from these individuals was then subjected to a second round of screening. The M3 seeds were allowed to germinate under 16-hr-light and 8-hr-dark cycles. After 4 days, seedlings were divided into two batches: half were transferred to (control) 8-hr-light and 16-hr-dark cycles and half were transferred to the same conditions supplemented with daily 15-min end-of-day far-red light (EOD FR) treatments. Flowering time and internode production were recorded in control versus EOD FR–treated plants, and those M3 batches showing attenuated responses to EOD FR treatment were marked for further investigation.
Sequencing of the PHYE Gene
Genomic DNA was isolated from 4-week-old light-grown plants by using the method described by Edwards et al. 1991 . Primers were designed from the published A. thaliana PHYE cDNA sequence to amplify nine overlapping DNA fragments (~500 bp each), covering the entire coding region of the PHYE gene. For each primer pair, four independent polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) were performed, and the amplified fragments were pooled and purified using a Quiaquick gel purification kit (Quiagen Ltd., Crawley, UK). Purified fragments were sequenced directly using primers from the original amplification step and dye-labeled terminators on an ABI 377 automated sequencer (ABI, Warrington, Cheshire, UK).
Backcrossing and Selection of Mutant Lines
Before physiological analyses were performed, the phyA phyB phyE co mutant was backcrossed to the parental phyA phyB co line. The phyE mutant was selected from the F2 generation, as described below. The phyA phyB phyE co mutant was also backcrossed to the Landsberg erecta (Ler) wild type to select the monogenic phyE mutant and the various double mutants. Seeds from the F2 generation were sown on mineral salts agar (Lehle Seeds, Round Rock, TX) and stratified for 4 days in darkness at 4°C. The plates were exposed to a 2-hr pulse of white fluorescent light (photon irradiance, 400 to 700 nm, 100 µmol m-2 sec-1) at 22°C, then transferred to darkness for 24 hr, and then to continuous FR (photon irradiance, 700 to 800 nm, 10 µmol m-2 sec-1) for an additional 60 hr. Seedlings homozygous for the wild-type PHYA gene, selected on the basis of their extremely short hypocotyls and open cotyledons, were transferred to fresh plates and allowed to green for 2 days under continuous white fluorescent light. These seedlings were then transferred to soil and allowed to set seed. Seed from each of these F2 plants were collected separately. Seed color was scored for absence of the transparent testa tt4 mutation, which is closely linked to the co mutation, and each F3 population was then screened under R light (as above) for presence of the wild-type PHYB gene. Seedlings from F3 populations homozygous for wild-type PHYB were transferred to soil, and rosette leaf tissue was collected from each plant and used to make extracts of DNA, which were assayed using the cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences technique for the polymorphism associated with the phyE mutation.
Briefly, a 543-bp fragment of the PHYE gene was amplified by PCR, using the upstream primer 5'-GTCACT TGCCGATGAGAT TG-3' and the downstream primer 5'-CTCCAAAGACT TCACCGGG-3'. The amplified fragment was restriction digested with HinfI to yield fragments of 252, 127, 80, 55, and 29 bp and from the wild-type PHYE allele and fragments of 252, 134, 127, and 29 bp from the mutant phyE-1 allele. Of the F3 populations analyzed, those in which all plants were homozygous for the phyE-1 mutation were allowed to set seed, and seed color was scored for each plant within that population for absence of the tt4 mutation.
The phyA phyE, phyB phyE, and phyA phyB phyE mutant combinations were also selected from this backcross by using a long hypocotyl in FR and R as markers for the phyA and phyB mutations, respectively.
Phytochrome Extraction and Immunoblotting
Protein extraction and immunoblotting were performed as described previously (Devlin et al. 1992 ), with the following modifications. After resolution on SDS–polyacrylamide gels, protein samples were electroblotted onto an Imobilon-P polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA). Membranes were then probed with the following monoclonal antibodies: C11 and C13, which are selective for phyC (Somers et al. 1991 ); 2C1, which is selective for phyD; and 7B3, which is selective for phyE (Hirschfeld et al. 1998 ). Secondary incubations were performed with anti–mouse IgG antibodies conjugated to horseradish peroxidase. Bands were visualized using chemiluminescent reagents according to the procedures recommended by the manufacturer (Boehringer Mannheim).
Light Sources
Control conditions used in the EOD FR experiments comprised 8-hr warm white fluorescent light (photon irradiance, 400 to 700 nm, 102 µmol m-2 sec-1). When plants were given EOD FR pulses, FR light (photon irradiance, 700 to 800 nm, 57 µmol m-2 sec-1) was obtained by filtering the output of Osram (Osram Ltd.) Haloline 500W tungsten halogen lamps through 10 mm of flowing water and one layer (3 mm) of black Plexiglas (type FRF 700; West Lakes Plastics, Lenni, PA). All light measurements were made using a PS-II spectroradiometer (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE).
Measurements of Growth and Flowering
Internode and petiole lengths were measured using a ruler. Measurements were made after 75 days of treatment, by which time all plants had completed bolting. Data represent the means ±SE of at least 10 plants. Petiole lengths were determined for the largest fully grown leaf, and internode lengths were measured for the internode between rosette leaves 5 and 6.
Flowering time was recorded as the number of rosette leaves at inflorescence production. As described previously, rosette leaves were readily distinguished from cauline leaves on the basis of their morphologies (Devlin et al. 1996 ).
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 Current address: Department of Cell Biology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037. 
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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This work was supported by Grant No. P02394 from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (UK). We thank Malcolm Pratt for technical assistance with experimental growth conditions. Sincere thanks are also extended to Drs. Peter Quail and Bob Sharrock for providing phytochrome-selective monoclonal antibodies.
Received May 15, 1998; accepted July 13, 1998.
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L. Hennig, C. Poppe, U. Sweere, A. Martin, and E. Schafer
Negative Interference of Endogenous Phytochrome B with Phytochrome A Function in Arabidopsis
Plant Physiology,
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[Abstract]
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B. L. Montgomery, K. A. Franklin, M. J. Terry, B. Thomas, S. D. Jackson, M. W. Crepeau, and J. C. Lagarias
Biliverdin Reductase-Induced Phytochrome Chromophore Deficiency in Transgenic Tobacco
Plant Physiology,
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[Abstract]
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P. F. Devlin and S. A. Kay
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PLANT CELL,
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[Abstract]
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C. Lin
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J. W. Reed, P. Nagpal, R. M. Bastow, K. S. Solomon, M. J. Dowson-Day, R. P. Elumalai, and A. J. Millar
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Plant Physiology,
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[Abstract]
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G. Morelli and I. Ruberti
Shade Avoidance Responses. Driving Auxin along Lateral Routes
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M. M. Neff, C. Fankhauser, and J. Chory
Light: an indicator of time and place
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[Full Text]
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M. A. Blazquez and D. Weigel
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Plant Physiology,
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[Abstract]
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C. Fankhauser, K. Yeh, J. Clark, Lagarias, H. Zhang, T. D. Elich, and J. Chory
PKS1, a Substrate Phosphorylated by Phytochrome That Modulates Light Signaling in Arabidopsis
Science,
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[Abstract]
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S. J. Davis, J. Kurepa, and R. D. Vierstra
The Arabidopsis thaliana HY1 locus, required for phytochrome-chromophore biosynthesis, encodes a protein related to heme oxygenases
PNAS,
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[Abstract]
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K. J. Halliday, M. Hudson, M. Ni, M. Qin, and P. H. Quail
poc1: An Arabidopsis mutant perturbed in phytochrome signaling because of a T DNA insertion in the promoter of PIF3, a gene encoding a phytochrome-interacting bHLH protein
PNAS,
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96(10):
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[Abstract]
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R. Yamaguchi, M. Nakamura, N. Mochizuki, S. A. Kay, and A. Nagatani
Light-dependent Translocation of a Phytochrome B-GFP Fusion Protein to the Nucleus in Transgenic Arabidopsis
J. Cell Biol.,
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[Abstract]
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P. F. Devlin, P. R.H. Robson, S. R. Patel, L. Goosey, R. A. Sharrock, and G. C. Whitelam
Phytochrome D Acts in the Shade-Avoidance Syndrome in Arabidopsis by Controlling Elongation Growth and Flowering Time
Plant Physiology,
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[Abstract]
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T. Mockler, H Guo, H Yang, H Duong, and C Lin
Antagonistic actions of Arabidopsis cryptochromes and phytochrome B in the regulation of floral induction
Development,
January 5, 1999;
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[Abstract]
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C. Fankhauser
The Phytochromes, a Family of Red/Far-red Absorbing Photoreceptors
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION