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Plant Cell Advance Online Publication
Published on October 10, 2003; 10.1105/tpc.014928

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Received June 20, 2003
Accepted September 2, 2003

Cytokinin-Deficient Transgenic Arabidopsis Plants Show Multiple Developmental Alterations Indicating Opposite Functions of Cytokinins in the Regulation of Shoot and Root Meristem Activity

Tomás Werner 1, Václav Motyka 2, Valérie Laucou 3, Rafaël Smets 4, Harry Van Onckelen 4, and Thomas Schmülling 1*

1 Institute of Biology/Applied Genetics, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
2 Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, CZ-16502 Prague 6, Czech Republic
3 Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique/Ecole Nationale Supérieure Agronomique, GAP Viticulture, F-34060 Montpellier Cedex 1, France
4 University of Antwerp, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium

* To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: tschmue{at}zedat.fu-berlin.de.

Cytokinins are hormones that regulate cell division and development. As a result of a lack of specific mutants and biochemical tools, it has not been possible to study the consequences of cytokinin deficiency. Cytokinin-deficient plants are expected to yield information about processes in which cytokinins are limiting and that, therefore, they might regulate. We have engineered transgenic Arabidopsis plants that overexpress individually six different members of the cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (AtCKX ) gene family and have undertaken a detailed phenotypic analysis. Transgenic plants had increased cytokinin breakdown (30 to 45% of wild-type cytokinin content) and reduced expression of the cytokinin reporter gene ARR5:GUS ({beta}-glucuronidase). Cytokinin deficiency resulted in diminished activity of the vegetative and floral shoot apical meristems and leaf primordia, indicating an absolute requirement for the hormone. By contrast, cytokinins are negative regulators of root growth and lateral root formation. We show that the increased growth of the primary root is linked to an enhanced meristematic cell number, suggesting that cytokinins control the exit of cells from the root meristem. Different AtCKX-green fluorescent protein fusion proteins were localized to the vacuoles or the endoplasmic reticulum and possibly to the extracellular space, indicating that subcellular compartmentation plays an important role in cytokinin biology. Analyses of promoter:GUS fusion genes showed differential expression of AtCKX genes during plant development, the activity being confined predominantly to zones of active growth. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that cytokinins have central, but opposite, regulatory functions in root and shoot meristems and indicate that a fine-tuned control of catabolism plays an important role in ensuring the proper regulation of cytokinin functions.




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R. ALONI, E. ALONI, M. LANGHANS, and C. I. ULLRICH
Role of Cytokinin and Auxin in Shaping Root Architecture: Regulating Vascular Differentiation, Lateral Root Initiation, Root Apical Dominance and Root Gravitropism
Ann. Bot., May 1, 2006; 97(5): 883 - 893.
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 J Exp BotHome page
N. S. Kiran, L. Polanska, R. Fohlerova, P. Mazura, M. Valkova, M. Smeral, J. Zouhar, J. Malbeck, P. I. Dobrev, I. Machackova, et al.
Ectopic over-expression of the maize {beta}-glucosidase Zm-p60.1 perturbs cytokinin homeostasis in transgenic tobacco
J. Exp. Bot., March 1, 2006; 57(4): 985 - 996.
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 Plant Cell PhysiolHome page
T. Kuroha, C. Ueguchi, H. Sakakibara, and S. Satoh
Cytokinin Receptors are Required for Normal Development of Auxin-transporting Vascular Tissues in the Hypocotyl but not in Adventitious Roots
Plant Cell Physiol., February 1, 2006; 47(2): 234 - 243.
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 J Exp BotHome page
I. C. Dodd and C. A. Beveridge
Xylem-borne cytokinins: still in search of a role?
J. Exp. Bot., January 1, 2006; 57(1): 1 - 4.
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 J Exp BotHome page
S.-I. Miyazawa, N. J. Livingston, and D. H. Turpin
Stomatal development in new leaves is related to the stomatal conductance of mature leaves in poplar (Populus trichocarpaxP. deltoides)
J. Exp. Bot., January 1, 2006; 57(2): 373 - 380.
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 Plant CellHome page
M. Riefler, O. Novak, M. Strnad, and T. Schmulling
Arabidopsis Cytokinin Receptor Mutants Reveal Functions in Shoot Growth, Leaf Senescence, Seed Size, Germination, Root Development, and Cytokinin Metabolism
PLANT CELL, January 1, 2006; 18(1): 40 - 54.
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 Genes Dev.Home page
G. Sessa, M. Carabelli, M. Sassi, A. Ciolfi, M. Possenti, F. Mittempergher, J. Becker, G. Morelli, and I. Ruberti
A dynamic balance between gene activation and repression regulates the shade avoidance response in Arabidopsis
Genes & Dev., December 1, 2005; 19(23): 2811 - 2815.
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 Plant CellHome page
M. G. Mason, D. E. Mathews, D. A. Argyros, B. B. Maxwell, J. J. Kieber, J. M. Alonso, J. R. Ecker, and G. E. Schaller
Multiple Type-B Response Regulators Mediate Cytokinin Signal Transduction in Arabidopsis
PLANT CELL, November 1, 2005; 17(11): 3007 - 3018.
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 Am. J. Enol. Vitic.Home page
M. Keller
Deficit Irrigation and Vine Mineral Nutrition
Am. J. Enol. Vitic., September 1, 2005; 56(3): 267 - 283.
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 ScienceHome page
M. Ashikari, H. Sakakibara, S. Lin, T. Yamamoto, T. Takashi, A. Nishimura, E. R. Angeles, Q. Qian, H. Kitano, and M. Matsuoka
Cytokinin Oxidase Regulates Rice Grain Production
Science, July 29, 2005; 309(5735): 741 - 745.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J Exp BotHome page
R. Aloni, M. Langhans, E. Aloni, E. Dreieicher, and C. I. Ullrich
Root-synthesized cytokinin in Arabidopsis is distributed in the shoot by the transpiration stream
J. Exp. Bot., June 1, 2005; 56(416): 1535 - 1544.
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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
Z. Kwade, A. Swiaatek, A. Azmi, A. Goossens, D. Inze, H. Van Onckelen, and L. Roef
Identification of Four Adenosine Kinase Isoforms in Tobacco By-2 Cells and Their Putative Role in the Cell Cycle-regulated Cytokinin Metabolism
J. Biol. Chem., April 29, 2005; 280(17): 17512 - 17519.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J Exp BotHome page
A. Massonneau, N. Houba-Herin, C. Pethe, C. Madzak, M. Falque, M. Mercy, D. Kopecny, A. Majira, P. Rogowsky, and M. Laloue
Maize cytokinin oxidase genes: differential expression and cloning of two new cDNAs
J. Exp. Bot., December 1, 2004; 55(408): 2549 - 2557.
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 Plant CellHome page
S. Patel, A. Rose, T. Meulia, R. Dixit, R. J. Cyr, and I. Meier
Arabidopsis WPP-Domain Proteins Are Developmentally Associated with the Nuclear Envelope and Promote Cell Division
PLANT CELL, December 1, 2004; 16(12): 3260 - 3273.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
B. Hou, E.-K. Lim, G. S. Higgins, and D. J. Bowles
N-Glucosylation of Cytokinins by Glycosyltransferases of Arabidopsis thaliana
J. Biol. Chem., November 12, 2004; 279(46): 47822 - 47832.
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 Plant Cell PhysiolHome page
L. Spichal, N. Yu. Rakova, M. Riefler, T. Mizuno, G. A. Romanov, M. Strnad, and T. Schmulling
Two Cytokinin Receptors of Arabidopsis thaliana, CRE1/AHK4 and AHK3, Differ in their Ligand Specificity in a Bacterial Assay
Plant Cell Physiol., September 15, 2004; 45(9): 1299 - 1305.
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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
M. Higuchi, M. S. Pischke, A. P. Mahonen, K. Miyawaki, Y. Hashimoto, M. Seki, M. Kobayashi, K. Shinozaki, T. Kato, S. Tabata, et al.
In planta functions of the Arabidopsis cytokinin receptor family
PNAS, June 8, 2004; 101(23): 8821 - 8826.
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 Plant CellHome page
C. Nishimura, Y. Ohashi, S. Sato, T. Kato, S. Tabata, and C. Ueguchi
Histidine Kinase Homologs That Act as Cytokinin Receptors Possess Overlapping Functions in the Regulation of Shoot and Root Growth in Arabidopsis
PLANT CELL, June 1, 2004; 16(6): 1365 - 1377.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Plant Physiol.Home page
M. G. Mason, J. Li, D. E. Mathews, J. J. Kieber, and G. E. Schaller
Type-B Response Regulators Display Overlapping Expression Patterns in Arabidopsis
Plant Physiology, June 1, 2004; 135(2): 927 - 937.
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 Plant Physiol.Home page
T. Tantikanjana, M. D. Mikkelsen, M. Hussain, B. A. Halkier, and V. Sundaresan
Functional Analysis of the Tandem-Duplicated P450 Genes SPS/BUS/CYP79F1 and CYP79F2 in Glucosinolate Biosynthesis and Plant Development by Ds Transposition-Generated Double Mutants
Plant Physiology, June 1, 2004; 135(2): 840 - 848.
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 Genes Dev.Home page
C. F. Mouchel, G. C. Briggs, and C. S. Hardtke
Natural genetic variation in Arabidopsis identifies BREVIS RADIX, a novel regulator of cell proliferation and elongation in the root
Genes & Dev., March 15, 2004; 18(6): 700 - 714.
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 Plant CellHome page
N. A. Eckardt
A New Classic of Cytokinin Research: Cytokinin-Deficient Arabidopsis Plants Provide New Insights into Cytokinin Biology
PLANT CELL, November 1, 2003; 15(11): 2489 - 2492.
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