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Arabidopsis bZIP16 Transcription Factor Integrates Light and Hormone Signaling Pathways to Regulate Early Seedling Development

Wen-Ping Hsieh, Hsu-Liang Hsieh and Shu-Hsing Wu
The Plant Cell October 2012, 24 (10) 3997-4011; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.112.105478

Abstract

Transcriptomic adjustment plays an important role in Arabidopsis thaliana seed germination and deetiolation in response to environmental light signals. The G-box cis-element is commonly present in promoters of genes that respond positively or negatively to the light signal. In pursuing additional transcriptional regulators that modulate light-mediated transcriptome changes, we identified bZIP16, a basic region/Leu zipper motif transcription factor, by G-box DNA affinity chromatography. We confirmed that bZIP16 has G-box–specific binding activity. Analysis of bzip16 mutants revealed that bZIP16 is a negative regulator in light-mediated inhibition of cell elongation but a positive regulator in light-regulated seed germination. Transcriptome analysis supported that bZIP16 is primarily a transcriptional repressor regulating light-, gibberellic acid (GA)–, and abscisic acid (ABA)–responsive genes. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that bZIP16 could directly target ABA-responsive genes and RGA-LIKE2, a DELLA gene in the GA signaling pathway. bZIP16 could also indirectly repress the expression of PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR3-LIKE5, which encodes a basic helix-loop-helix protein coordinating hormone responses during seed germination. By repressing the expression of these genes, bZIP16 functions to promote seed germination and hypocotyl elongation during the early stages of Arabidopsis seedling development.

INTRODUCTION

Light is a key environmental factor regulating plant growth and development. For favorable growth and development in their habitat, plants rely on diverse photoreceptors to perceive and coordinate UV-B (Rizzini et al., 2011) and 400- to 800-nm visible light (reviewed in Kami et al., 2010). The most well-characterized physiological responses regulated by light include seed germination, deetiolation, and flowering time control (reviewed in Franklin and Quail, 2010).

Light triggers the targeting of the red (R)/far-red (FR) light photoreceptors phytochromes and UV-B photoreceptor UV RESISTANCE LOCUS8 into the nucleus (reviewed in Kaiserli and Jenkins, 2007; Chen, 2008; Fankhauser and Chen, 2008). The blue light photoreceptors cryptochromes are also present in the nucleus (Wu and Spalding, 2007; Yu et al., 2007). Genetic screens have yielded many Arabidopsis thaliana mutants with aberrant photomorphogenic phenotypes (reviewed in Chory, 2010). Like photoreceptors, the protein products of many of the genes identified in mutant screens are localized within the nucleus. The localization of photoreceptors and the light signaling molecules within the nuclei suggests active molecular modulation within the nucleus.

Transcriptome profiling has revealed hundreds to thousands of genes with differential expression patterns in response to light in wild-type Arabidopsis and photomorphogenic mutants (Ma et al., 2001, 2002, 2003; Tepperman et al., 2001, 2004; Wang et al., 2002; Jiao et al., 2003; Thum et al., 2004). Both positive and negative transcriptional regulators are responsible for transcriptomic adjustment in the deetiolation process (reviewed in Chory, 2010). These findings imply the existence of a regulatory network for fine-tuning the transcriptional response to changes in light quality and quantity.

The regulation of gene expression involves the interaction of the transcription factors and cis-elements in a target gene’s promoter. The G-box cis-element (CACGTG) was first identified in light-responsive genes encoding ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase small subunit and chalcone synthase (Giuliano et al., 1988; Block et al., 1990). Also, genome-wide surveys of genes differentially expressed in response to light identified the G-box in promoters of genes regulated by the photoreceptors phytochrome A (phyA) (Hudson and Quail, 2003) and cryptochrome 1 (Kleine et al., 2007). In vitro binding assays revealed the G-box as the target sequence of the key regulators ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL5 (HY5) and PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR3 (PIF3) in light signaling pathways (Martínez-García et al., 2000; Gao et al., 2004). The identification of additional transcriptional regulators with affinity to the G-box will benefit our understanding of light-regulated expression of genes containing the G-box in their promoters and the molecular mechanisms underlying light-regulated growth and development.

Proper regulation of seed germination and early seedling development rely on an integration of signals from environmental light and endogenous hormones, such as gibberellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA) (Seo et al., 2009; Lau and Deng, 2010; Weitbrecht et al., 2011). A few key transcriptional regulators have been identified to coordinate light and hormone responses. Among them, PIL5 preferentially interacts with the Pfr form of phyA and phyB and acts as a negative factor in phytochrome-mediated promotion of seed germination and inhibition of hypocotyl elongation (Oh et al., 2004). PIL5 regulates seed germination by coordinating various hormonal signaling pathways (Oh et al., 2007; Kang et al., 2010). DELLA proteins, such as REPRESSOR OF GA1-3 (RGA), GA-INSENSITIVE (GAI), and RGA-LIKE1/2/3 (RGL1/2/3), function to negate the GA signaling pathway that promotes both seed germination and hypocotyl elongation (Davière et al., 2008; Itoh et al., 2008; Hauvermale et al., 2012). However, upstream transcriptional regulators of PIL5 and RGL2 remain to be identified.

Here, we describe our identification of bZIP16 as a transcriptional repressor regulating the expression of PIL5, RGL2, and genes influencing light, GA, and ABA signals. bZIP16 plays a positive role in phytochrome-mediated seed germination but a negative role in the red light (RL)–mediated inhibition of cell elongation. Our study indicates that bZIP16 is a newly identified G-box binding transcription factor integrating light and hormone pathways to promote seed germination and hypocotyl elongation during the early stages of Arabidopsis seedling development.

RESULTS

bZIP16 Is a G-box Binding Protein

The ability of HY5 and PIF3 to bind the G-box sequence in vitro inspired us to use DNA affinity chromatography to isolate G-box binding proteins from Arabidopsis nuclear extracts. Figure 1A shows a simplified experimental procedure to streamline the DNA affinity chromatography, liquid chromatography, and tandem mass spectrometry we used to identify G-box binding proteins in Arabidopsis. Among the proteins identified (see Supplemental Table 1 online), G-box binding factor1 (GBF1) is a previously reported G-box binding protein regulating blue light–mediated photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis (Schindler et al., 1992a; Mallappa et al., 2006; Mallappa et al., 2008). Therefore, the methodology we adopted could successfully isolate proteins with affinity to the G-box sequence.

Figure 1.
Figure 1.

bZIP16 Is a G-Box Binding Protein.

(A) A flowchart showing the procedure for identifying bZIP16 by combining DNA (G-box) affinity chromatography and liquid chromatography (LC) MS/MS.

(B) EMSAs performed with recombinant bZIP16 protein and the 4×G-box used as a probe. HY5, a known G-box binding protein, was used as a positive control. G-box probe, 10 ng biotin 3′-end labeled 4×G-box; HY5, 70 ng HY5 recombinant protein; G-box competitor, unlabeled G-box tetramer at fivefold to 20-fold excess to the G-box probe as indicated. The free probe and protein–G-box complexes are marked.

bZIP16 was also identified as G-box binding protein (see Supplemental Table 1 online). Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) revealed that purified bZIP16 recombinant protein could bind tandem repeats (4×) of the G-box probe and form several mobility retarded protein-DNA complexes (Figure 1B). This result confirms previous reports that the bZIP16–G-box complex could be formed by incubating the G-box probe with a crude protein mixture containing in vitro–translated bZIP16 protein or recombinant bZIP16 proteins (Shen et al., 2008; Shaikhali et al., 2012). The formation of bZIP16–G-box complexes was reduced in the presence of excess unlabeled G-box competitors (Figure 1B), which suggests that bZIP16 specifically binds to the G-box cis-element.

Like GBF1 (bZIP41), GBF2 (bZIP54), GBF3 (bZIP55), and bZIP68, bZIP16 is a member of group G basic domain/leucine zipper motif (bZIP) transcription factors in Arabidopsis (Jakoby et al., 2002). Group G bZIPs have a C-terminal bZIP DNA binding domain and an N-terminal Pro-rich region with transactivation activity (Schindler et al., 1992b).

The expression pattern of bZIP16 was queried in the Genevestigator expression database (https://www.genevestigator.com/gv/; Zimmermann et al., 2004). Except for a much higher expression in seeds, bZIP16 was expressed constitutively and at a low level in various developmental stages (see Supplemental Figure 1A online). The expression of bZIP16 was not significantly altered under various biotic or abiotic stresses, including light and plant hormones (see Supplemental Figure 1B online).

bZIP16 Is a Negative Regulator in Arabidopsis Photomorphogenesis

Among bZIPs, HY5 acts as a positive regulator in Arabidopsis photomorphogenesis by affecting the expression of downstream genes in response to a light signal (Koornneef et al., 1980; Ang et al., 1998; Chattopadhyay et al., 1998). However, GBF1 is a negative regulator in blue light–mediated inhibition of hypocotyl elongation in Arabidopsis (Mallappa et al., 2006). The binding of bZIP16 to the light-responsive element G-box prompted us to examine whether mutation in bZIP16 results in aberrant light-regulated development in Arabidopsis.

We analyzed two bzip16 mutant alleles (Figure 2A). In a Columbia-0 (Col-0) background, bzip16-1 carries a T-DNA insertion upstream of the transcriptional start site and represents a weak allele with residual bZIP16 transcripts (Figure 2B). However, the T-DNA insertion in intron 2 of bZIP16 gives rise to a null allele, bzip16-2, in a Landsberg erecta (Ler) background with no detectable transcripts (Figure 2B). Polyclonal antiserum against recombinant bZIP16 protein was generated for detecting bZIP16 protein in various genetic backgrounds. Immunoblot analysis confirmed that bZIP16 protein could accumulate at a low level in plants harboring the weak allele bzip16-1 but was not detected in mutants with the null allele bzip16-2 (Figure 2B). The absence of the bZIP16 signal in bzip16-2 on the immunoblot also indicated that the antiserum was bZIP16 specific.

Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Molecular Characterization of bzip16 Mutants.

(A) Diagram of bZIP16 gene and the location of T-DNA insertion sites for bzip16-1 (SALK_044834) in Col-0 and bzip16-2 (GT9934) in Ler background.

(B) RNA gel blot and immunoblot analyses of levels of mRNA (top) and protein (bottom) of bZIP16 in wild-type and bzip16 mutants in 12-d-old seedlings. Ethidium bromide–stained rRNA and α-tubulin (Tub) protein were loading controls.

During the deetiolation process, light inhibits hypocotyl elongation in a dose-dependent manner. We examined whether bZIP16 contributes to this process by monitoring the hypocotyl length of bzip16 mutants under different qualities of light. Because different germination rates might complicate the data interpretation, the germination of all genotypes was synchronized by 3-d cold treatment (see Supplemental Figure 2 online). Under various fluences of RL, bzip16-1 and bzip16-2 mutants had shorter hypocotyls than did corresponding wild-type seedlings under long-day (LD) conditions (Figures 3A and 3B). The light hypersensitivity of bzip16 mutants could also be detected under white light (see Supplemental Figure 3A online) but not under FR or blue light (see Supplemental Figures 3B and 3C online). The severity of the light-hypersensitive phenotype was associated with the residual or lack of bZIP16 expression in bzip16-1 or bzip16-2 (Figure 2B). The light-hypersensitive phenotype of bzip16-1 was less evident under continuous light (data not shown). This situation may explain the lack of photomorphogenic phenotype in bzip16-1 reported previously (Shen et al., 2008). The analyses of bzip16 phenotypes under different light regimes and the inclusion of the bzip16-2 null allele in this study solidify the role of bZIP16 in photomorphogenesis.

Figure 3.
Figure 3.

bZIP16 Negatively Regulates RL-Mediated Photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis.

Hypocotyl lengths of 4-d-old seedlings grown under various fluences of RL under LD conditions. bzip16 mutants and transgenic lines in a Col-0 background (A) and Ler background (B). Representative photographs of seedlings are shown. Asterisk indicates hypocotyl length of bzip16 mutants or bZIP16ox lines is significantly different from that of Col-0 or Ler (P < 0.01, Student’s t test; n = 20 to 30). Bars = 5 mm.

[See online article for color version of this figure.]

The light-hypersensitive phenotypes in both bzip16 mutants could be rescued by expressing a genomic fragment of bZIP16 (bzip16-1/bZIP16 and bzip16-2/bZIP16; Figures 3A and 3B). By contrast, transgenic plants overexpressing bZIP16 (bZIP16ox) showed an elongated hypocotyl under all fluences of RL tested (Figure 3A). The overexpression of bZIP16 in bZIP16ox seedlings was confirmed by immunoblot analysis (see Supplemental Figure 4C online). These results are consistent among independent complementation and overexpression lines (see Supplemental Figures 4A and 4B online). Thus, bZIP16 functions as a negative regulator in RL-induced inhibition of hypocotyl elongation during photomorphogenesis. Interestingly, the complementation lines in a Ler background, bzip16-2/bZIP16, accumulated high levels of bZIP16 protein but did not exhibit the elongated hypocotyl phenotype (Figure 3B; see Supplemental Figures 4B and 4C online). The two Arabidopsis ecotypes may have different sensitivities to the level of bZIP16 protein. Alternatively, the use of 35S or bZIP16 promoter may lead to the expression of bZIP16 in different tissues, thus showing differential impact on hypocotyl elongation in bZIP16ox and bzip16-2/bZIP16 seedlings.

bZIP16–Green Fluorescent Protein Is a Nuclear Protein

Two putative nuclear localization sequences, amino acids 307 to 312 and 320 to 326, reside in the bZIP domain of bZIP16. Therefore, bZIP16 might be a nuclear-localized transcriptional regulator. The nuclear localization of bZIP16 was previously observed by transient overexpression of bZIP16-fluorescent protein fusion proteins in either onion epidermal cells or Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts (Shen et al., 2008; Shaikhali et al., 2012). To verify whether a biologically functional form of bZIP16 is indeed a nuclear protein, we introduced bZIP16-GFP (for green fluorescent protein) into the bzip16-1 mutant. The successful complementation of the light-hypersensitive phenotype in bzip16-1 indicates that bZIP16-GFP is a functional protein in planta (see Supplemental Figure 5A online). Immunoblot analysis also confirmed that the expression of bZIP16-GFP was similar to that of endogenous bZIP16 (see Supplemental Figure 5B online). bZIP16-GFP signal was observed by use of confocal microscopy and was nicely superimposed with nuclei stained with propidium iodide. This result indicated that bZIP16-GFP localizes in the nucleus (see Supplemental Figure 5C online).

bZIP16 Negatively Regulates Gene Expression in the Dark

The nuclear localization and protein signatures of bZIP16 imply that bZIP16 functions as a transcriptional factor regulating gene expression. We next performed a transcriptome comparison of 4-d-old wild-type (Ler) and bzip16-2 seedlings grown under RL and LD conditions. Samples from 4-d-old etiolated seedlings (dark) or RL/LD seedlings illuminated with RL for 6 h (RL) were used for transcriptome profiling. In total, 275 genes with significantly differential expression between Ler and bzip16-2 in dark or RL conditions were retrieved for k-means clustering analysis. Supplemental Data Set 1 online shows the expression data of these genes from three biological replicate samples. Figure 4 shows five representative expression clusters (clusters I to V) obtained (left panel) and plots of average expression for genes in each cluster (right panel).

Figure 4.
Figure 4.

bZIP16 Is a Transcriptional Repressor in the Dark.

Hierarchical clustering of bZIP16-regulated genes differentially expressed in Ler and bzip16-2 under dark or RL. Expression data for all three biological repeats of each treatment are shown as relative expression of each gene to the median of 12 samples. The median expression of each gene is shown in yellow. Relative up- or downregulation from median expression is yellow and blue respectively. The k-means clustering (left panel) categorized the bZIP16-regulated genes into five clusters (I to V) according to their expression patterns illustrated in the right panel. Gray spots in the right panel indicate the levels of expression for each bZIP16-regulated gene in each expression cluster. Red lines illustrate the expression averages for Ler or bzip16 in each cluster.

The expression of genes in clusters I to III was upregulated in the bzip16-2 mutant in the dark (Figure 4). Genes in these three clusters had distinct expression responsiveness to RL in Ler. The expression of genes in clusters I and II was downregulated by RL, with genes in cluster I more repressed by RL. By contrast, genes in cluster III were upregulated by RL in Ler. bZIP16 may function to maintain optimal expression of these genes by specifically repressing their expression in the dark. Most (254 of 275) bZIP16-regulated genes were classified in these three clusters, which indicates that bZIP16 primarily acts to repress gene expression in the dark.

The expression of genes in clusters IV and V was comparable between the dark and RL in Ler, which suggests that the expression of these genes is not regulated by light in Ler. Interestingly, bZIP16 repressed the expression of genes in cluster IV but activated genes in cluster V under both dark and RL conditions. Only four genes were positively regulated by bZIP16 (cluster V), further indicating that bZIP16 is primarily a negative regulator in seedling development.

bZIP16 Regulates Genes Responsive to Light and Hormones

Increasing numbers of reports describe the interplay between the signaling pathways of light and plant hormones (Lau and Deng, 2010). We next examined whether bZIP16 specifically regulates light-responsive genes or is involved in coordinating light and hormone signals. We compared the 275 bZIP16-regulated genes with genes regulated by various qualities of light or plant hormones. We evaluated whether bZIP16-regulated genes are significantly enriched under a specific quality of light or hormone treatment by Fisher’s exact test (http://www.langsrud.com/fisher.htm; Agresti, 1992).

As shown in Table 1, 61% of bZIP16-regulated genes were light responsive compared with only 21% of genes represented on ATH1 (P value = 1 × 10−47). Among genes responding to qualities of light, bZIP16 preferentially regulated genes responding to continuous RL (P value = 2.6 × 10−48). Also, 26.4% of bZIP16-regulated genes were differentially regulated by treatment with multiple plant hormones (P value = 8.5 × 10−11; Table 1). Notably, GA- and ABA-responsive genes are highly represented in bZIP16-regulated genes (P value = 9 × 10−44 and 8.5 × 10−5, respectively). bZIP16-regulated genes responsive to light or hormones are listed in Supplemental Data Set 2 online. The overrepresentation of bZIP16-regulated genes in response to RL, GA, and ABA suggests a possible role of bZIP16 in biological processes regulated by these external and internal factors.

View this table:
Table 1. bZIP16 Regulates Hormone- and Light-Responsive Genes

Accordingly, a search for cis-elements enriched in 1-kb promoter regions of bZIP16-regulated genes revealed cis-elements responsible for gene expression with light, GA, and ABA treatment (see Supplemental Table 2 online). In addition, the enrichment of the G-box and its derivatives in promoters of bZIP16-regulated genes is in agreement with the binding affinity of bZIP16 to the G-box observed in Figure 1B.

bZIP16 Positively Regulates Phytochrome-Mediated Promotion of Seed Germination

Seed germination is a physiological process responding to the integration of light, GA, and ABA signals (Seo et al., 2009; Lau and Deng, 2010; Weitbrecht et al., 2011). That bZIP16 preferentially regulates light-, GA-, and ABA-responsive genes led us to examine whether bzip16 mutants have defects in seed germination.

With a pulse of far-red light (FRp), bzip16-1 and bzip16-2 mutants showed a reduced germination rate compared with Col-0 and Ler, respectively (Figure 5A). The germination defect in bzip16-2 persisted under extended FR illumination (4-h FR) but was less evident for the weak mutant allele, bzip16-1 (Figure 5B). Both bzip16-1 and bzip16-2 mutants showed a marked germination defect under a pulse of RL (Rp) (Figure 5C). The expression of bZIP16-GFP complemented the germination defect in bzip16-1, thus confirming again that bZIP16-GFP is a functional protein. The overexpression of bZIP16 (bZIP16ox) resulted in enhanced germination efficiency under FRp, 4-h FR, or Rp treatments (Figures 5A to 5 C). Thus, bZIP16 is a positive regulator for seed germination under both R and FR light.

Figure 5.
Figure 5.

bZIP16 Is a Positive Regulator of Seed Germination.

phyA-dependent ([A] and [B]) and phyB-dependent (C) assays of the germination rate (percentage) of Col-0, bzip16-1, bzip16-1/bZIP16-GFP, bZIP16ox, Ler, bzip16-2, phyA, bzip16-2 phyA, phyB, and bzip16-2 phyB. The light treatment schemes are shown above. FRp, 0.5 W/m2; Rp, 5 μE; FR, 3 W/m2.

R and FR light promote seed germination via the action of phyB and phyA, respectively (Shinomura et al., 1994, 1996). As expected, the germination of phyA and phyB mutant seeds was largely inhibited under FR and R light, respectively (Figures 5A to 5C). Interestingly, the germination defect was more severe for seeds of bzip16-2 phyB than phyB (Figure 5C). Thus, bZIP16 may be responsible for the residual germination ability in phyB observed in Figure 5C. This finding suggests bZIP16 has a phyB-independent function in seed germination. In comparing the results in Figures 3 and 5, bZIP16 appears to have a more important role in seed germination than in deetiolation.

Expression of RGL2 and PIL5 Is Upregulated in the bzip16 Mutant

RGL2, a DELLA protein, and PIL5 are two negative regulators in seed germination (Lee et al., 2002; Oh et al., 2004). Both RGL2 and PIL5 were upregulated in bzip16 mutant seedlings in the dark (clusters I and II in Figure 4; expression data in Supplemental Data Set 1 online). We next examined whether the germination defects in the bzip16 mutant are associated with the upregulation of RGL2 and PIL5. We analyzed the expression of these two genes in Ler, bzip16-2, and the bzip16-2/bZIP16 complementation line under different FR or R light regimes after imbibition. In parallel to the gene expression analyses, we scored seed germination phenotypes of different genotypes. As shown in Supplemental Figure 6 online, bzip16-2 exhibited delayed germination under all conditions examined, similar to the results shown in Figure 5.

With a pulse of FR light, the expression of PIL5 was markedly higher in seeds of bzip16-2 than Ler throughout the 4-d time course examined (Figure 6A). Increased expression of PIL5 in bzip16-2 was also observed within 48 h after imbibition under prolonged FR or a pulse of R (Figures 6B and 6C). The negative role of bZIP16 in PIL5 expression is supported by the clear anticorrelation (P = 3.6 × 10−57) in expression patterns of genes regulated by both bZIP16 and PIL5 on transcriptome analyses (see Supplemental Figure 7 online; expression data are in Supplemental Data Set 3 online).

Figure 6.
Figure 6.

bZIP16 Represses the Expression of RGL2 and PIL5 during Seed Germination.

Real-time quantitative PCR of the mRNA expression of RGL2 and PIL5 in Ler, bzip16-2, and bzip16-2/bZIP16 seeds imbibed for the times indicated. phyA-dependent ([A] and [B]) and phyB-dependent (C) light treatment schemes are shown above. The expression of RGL2 and PIL5 at each time point was normalized to that of UBQ10. The expression at time zero was set to 1. The means and standard deviations were calculated from three technical replicates. Three independent biological experiments were performed with similar results. FRp, 0.5 W/m2; Rp, 5 μE; FR, 3 W/m2.

A previous report indicated that the expression of RGL2 was transiently upregulated in Ler seeds after imbibition (Lee et al., 2002; Tyler et al., 2004). In imbibed bzip16-2 seeds, RGL2 still exhibited transient upregulation as in Ler seeds, but its expression level was significantly increased under all light regimes (Figures 6A to 6C).

The increased expression of the negative regulators RGL2 and PIL5 may explain, at least in part, the delayed germination of bzip16 seeds (Figure 5; see Supplemental Figure 6A online). The steadily high expression of PIL5 in bzip16-2 may account for its extremely low germination rate after a pulse of FR.

pil5 and rgl2 Are Epistatic to bzip16

To confirm further the genetic relationship between bZIP16, PIL5, and RGL2, we generated bzip16-2 pil5-1 and bzip16-2 rgl2-5 double mutants. bZIP16 was a positive regulator of Arabidopsis seed germination as confirmed by the delayed germination rate of bzip16-2 under all light regimes tested (Figure 7). By contrast, PIL5 and RGL2 are negative regulators of seed germination (Lee et al., 2002; Oh et al., 2004). Our germination assay results in Figure 7 confirmed that pil5-1 germinated much earlier than Col-0 under both FR and R conditions and rgl2-5 germinated earlier than Ler only under R, possibly because of functional redundancy with GAI and RGA under FR (Piskurewicz et al., 2009).

Figure 7.
Figure 7.

rgl2 and pil5 Are Epistatic to bzip16 in Seed Germination.

The germination rate (percentage) of Col-0, Ler, F1 of Ler and Col-0 (Ler Col-0), bzip16-2, pil5-1, rgl2-5, bzip16-2 pil5-1 and bzip16-2 rg12-5 with FRp (A), prolonged FR light (B), and R light (C). The light treatment schemes are shown above. FRp, 0.5 W/m2; Rp, 5 μE; FR, 3 W/m2.

The germination rate of bzip16-2 pil5-1 and bzip16-2 rgl2-5 resembled that of pil5-1 and rgl2-5, respectively (Figure 7). Thus, pil5 and rgl2 are epistatic to bzip16, which is consistent with PIL5 and RGL2 being downstream genes regulated by bZIP16 (Figure 6).

bZIP16 Associates with the Promoters of Genes in GA and ABA Signaling Pathways

The G-box core motif (-ACGT-) is present in the promoter of RGL2 (Figure 8A). Therefore, during seed germination, bZIP16 may repress the expression of RGL2 by direct binding. To test this possibility, we performed chromatin immunoprecipitation–quantitative PCR (ChIP-qPCR) assay of imbibed seeds of bzip16-1/bZIP16-GFP complementation lines, with Col-0 (wild type) used as a control. bZIP16-GFP protein was immunoprecipitated with anti-GFP antibody, and qPCR was used to analyze the precipitated DNA for enrichment of the RGL2 promoter region harboring the G-box core motif. In germinating seeds, compared with the wild-type control, bZIP16-GFP complementation lines showed enrichment of the RGL2 promoter fragment (Figure 8B). Direct binding of bZIP16 to RGL2 promoter in planta was also observed in 4-d-old etiolated seedlings (Figure 8C). Despite the upregulation of PIL5 in the bzip16 mutant, no G-box or its derivative cis-elements could be found in the promoter region of PIL5, and bZIP16 did not bind to the promoter of PIL5 in ChIP-qPCR assays (see Supplemental Figure 8 online). Therefore, bZIP16 may repress the expression of PIL5 indirectly.

Figure 8.
Figure 8.

bZIP16 Directly Binds to the Promoter Regions of GA- and ABA-Responsive Genes.

(A) Gene structures for the candidate target genes of bZIP16. Transcriptional start and gene unit are marked with an arrow and shaded arrow bar. Black line indicates intergenic region. Cis-elements are indicated with ovals in different colors. Target fragments assayed by ChIP-qPCR are indicated with horizontal black bars as fragment A, B, or C.

(B) and (C) ChIP assays were performed in extracts isolated from germinating seeds (B) or 4-d-old etiolated seedlings (C). Immunoprecipitated DNA was quantified by qPCR with specific primer pairs for candidate fragments. Amplicons in UBQ10 were used as an internal control. Results from Col-0 (wild type [WT]) and bzip16-1/bZIP16-GFP (bZIP16) were normalized as percentage of the input DNA. Data are means ± sd (technical repeats, n = 3). Three independent experiments were performed with similar results.

We next surveyed additional genes directly targeted by bZIP16. We primarily focused on genes in GA and ABA pathways because of their high representation in the population of bZIP16-regulated genes (Table 1). We examined eight genes in addition to RGL2 that showed upregulation in the bzip16 mutant. These eight genes carry the G-box or its derivative cis-elements in the promoter region and encode proteins functioning in the biosynthetic pathway of ABA or signaling pathways of GA and ABA on the basis of their gene ontology classification in The Arabidopsis Information Resource database (http://www.Arabidopsis.org/tools/bulk/go/index.jsp). ChIP-qPCR analysis of the promoter region harboring putative bZIP16 target sites revealed that in germinating seeds, bZIP16 could bind with promoters of HVA22 HOMOLOG B (HVA22B), ABA-HYPERSENSITIVE GERMINATION1 (AHG1), and EARLY METHIONINE-LABELED6 (EM6) (Figure 8B). In 4-d-old etiolated seedlings, bZIP16 could target promoters of HVA22B, EM6, and SALT TOLERANCE ZINC FINGER (STZ) (Figure 8C). Therefore, in addition to activating the GA pathway by repressing RGL2, bZIP16 likely functions to repress the ABA signaling by directly binding to the promoters of the ABA-responsive genes but not biosynthetic genes.

To confirm that bZIP16 binds specifically to promoters of endogenous genes, we performed EMSA experiments with recombinant bZIP16 and RGL2 and EM6 promoters. As shown in Supplemental Figure 9 online, bZIP16 could bind specifically to RGL2 and EM6 promoter fragments harboring G-box or its derivative elements enriched in the ChIP experiment (Figure 8). The results also showed that bZIP16 had much reduced binding affinity to mutated target cis-elements in both promoters (see Supplemental Figures 9A and 9B online). These results support that bZIP16 could repress the expression of its target genes via direct binding to the G-box core elements.

Taken together, in the bzip16 mutant, the derepression of PIL5, RGL2, and ABA-responsive genes may have an inhibitory role in hypocotyl elongation and seed germination, as observed in Figures 3 and 5.

DISCUSSION

bZIP16 Promotes GA but Inhibits ABA Actions in Early Seedling Development

Our study identified bZIP16 as a transcription factor regulating both seed germination and hypocotyl elongation in Arabidopsis. Figure 9 illustrates the molecular actions of bZIP16 in these two developmental processes.

Figure 9.
Figure 9.

A Working Model Illustrating Molecular Actions of bZIP16 in Arabidopsis Early Seedling Development.

bZIP16, primarily a transcriptional repressor, positively regulates seed germination and hypocotyl cell elongation by repressing RGL2, PIL5, and ABA-responsive genes. The model also highlights the roles of bZIP16 in coordinating light, GA, and ABA signaling pathways.

GA and ABA are antagonistic phytohormones in various developmental stages. PIL5 is a bHLH transcriptional regulator coordinating GA and ABA signaling pathways during Arabidopsis seed germination (Oh et al., 2007; Kang et al., 2010). PIL5 directly activates the expression of SOMNUS, an upstream regulator of GA and ABA metabolic genes (Kim et al., 2008). PIL5 can also indirectly activate ABA anabolic genes and repress an ABA catabolic gene (Oh et al., 2009). In addition to promoting ABA actions, PIL5 negatively regulates GA biogenesis and signal transduction. For example, it can repress the expression of the GA biosynthetic genes GA3-oxidase1 and 2 and activate the GA catabolic gene GA20-oxidase (Oh et al., 2006, 2009). It also reduces GA responsiveness by directly targeting the promoters of two DELLA genes, RGA and GAI (Oh et al., 2007). DELLA proteins, including RGL2, RGA, and GAI, are negative regulators of GA signaling (Davière et al., 2008; Itoh et al., 2008; Hauvermale et al., 2012). In addition to repressing GA actions, DELLAs activate ABA pathways. For example, RGL2 can induce the expression of XERICO, a RING-H2 zinc finger factor, to increase ABA levels (Zentella et al., 2007). RGL2 is also needed for the expression of ABI5, a key component in the ABA signaling pathway (Piskurewicz et al., 2008). The mutual inhibitory actions of GA and ABA fine-tune the plant’s responses to various environmental and physiological conditions.

Our study revealed that bZIP16 functions upstream of RGL2 and PIL5 (Figures 6, 7, and 9). In wild-type seeds and seedlings, bZIP16 acted to promote the dominant role of GA over ABA. bZIP16 is predominantly expressed in seeds (see Supplemental Figure 1 online). By repressing the expression of PIL5 and RGL2 (Figures 6 and 9), bZIP16 could activate the GA pathway and repress ABA actions, thus promoting seed germination (Figures 5 and 9). In bzip16 mutants, the reduced GA actions and the increased ABA signaling result in a short hypocotyl length, mimicking a light-hypersensitive response (Figures 3 and 9).

bZIP16 appears to play multiple roles in negatively regulating ABA actions. First, bZIP16 might reduce the level of ABA by downregulating RGL2 (Figure 6). Second, bZIP16 indirectly represses the expression of PIL5 (Figure 6) and ABI3 (see Supplemental Data Set 1 online), positive regulators in ABA signaling (no G-box cis-elements are present in ABI3 promoter). Finally, bZIP16 directly targets and represses the expression of the ABA-responsive genes HVA22B, EM6, AHG1, and STZ. Assessing the contribution of these genes in seed germination and early photomorphogenesis is of interest.

Functions of G-Box Binding Proteins

Among the group G bZIP family, GBF1 and bZIP16 act as negative regulators of blue- and RL-mediated inhibition of hypocotyl elongation, respectively (Mallappa et al., 2006; this study). Although both bZIP16 and GBF1 have transcriptional activation activity in yeast (Shen et al., 2008; Smykowski et al., 2010), both could function as transcriptional repressors in planta. GBF1 could repress the expression of RBCS (Mallappa et al., 2006) and CAT2 (Smykowski et al., 2010). In this study, we found that bZIP16 functions primarily as a transcriptional repressor in the dark (Figure 4). The mutant bzip16 is light hypersensitive but shows no phenotype difference from wild-type seedlings in the dark (Figure 3). Thus, the repressor role of bZIP16 in the dark is required for attenuating the light-mediated inhibition of hypocotyl elongation in the light.

Other bZIP transcription factors, GBF2, GBF3, and HY5, and bHLH transcription factors MYC2, PIL5, PIF3, PIF4, PIF7, and CRYPTOCHROME-INTERACTING BASIC-HELIX-LOOP-HELIX1 could also bind with G-box to regulate light-mediated gene expression and physiological responses (Schindler et al., 1992a; Chattopadhyay et al., 1998; Martínez-García et al., 2000; Huq and Quail, 2002; Yadav et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2008; Moon et al., 2008; Kidokoro et al., 2009; Oh et al., 2009; Gangappa et al., 2010). Previous study indicated that GBF1, GBF2, and GBF3 could heterodimerize with each other, and the heterodimers could bind with the G-box (Schindler et al., 1992a). bZIP16 can also interact with other members of group G bZIPs but not a group H bZIP, HY5 (Shen et al., 2008). The formation of homodimers or heterodimers of these group G bZIPs and possibly other G-box binding transcription factors implies increased complexity and flexibility of light- or hormone-regulated gene expression.

METHODS

Affinity Purification of G-Box Binding Proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana Nuclei

To acquire the fragment containing four repeats of the G-box element (4×G-box), 4×G-S and 4×G-AS primers (see Supplemental Table 3 online) were annealed and cloned into the pBluescript SK+ vector (Stratagene). The 4×G-box probe was amplified with psk-LRE-F and psk-LRE-R primers and labeled by use of a 3′-end biotin labeling kit (Pierce). The pair of primers was also used to amplify a control fragment directly from the pBluescript SK+. The Arabidopsis nuclear proteins were isolated from rosette leaves of 3-week-old plants as described (Koncz et al., 1992). To identify G-box binding proteins, 150 μg nuclear protein in 15 μL nucleus extraction buffer (25 mM HEPES/KOH, pH 7.5, 70 mM KCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 20% glycerol, 1 mM DTT, 5 μg/μL antipain hydrochloride, and 5 μg/mL leupeptin) was preincubated with 0.1 μg poly dI-dC on ice for 10 min before being added to Dynabeads (Invitrogen) conjugated with 3′-end biotin labeled 4×G-box fragment or control fragment. After incubation at room temperature for 20 min with gentle rotation, nonspecific proteins were removed by washing five times with 100 μL wash buffer (20 mM HEPES/KOH, pH 7.9, 50 mM KCl, 1 mM MgCl2, 0.5 mM DTT, 10% glycerol, 5 μg/μL antipain hydrochloride, 5 μg/mL leupeptin, and 0.1 μg poly dI-dC). The DNA-protein complexes were digested overnight with modified trypsin at a ratio of enzyme to solution of 1:100 (w/v). The resulting peptides were desalted by use of ZIP-TIP (Millipore) and underwent liquid chromatography nano-electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) analysis (Q-TOF Ultima API MS; Micromass). The mass-to-charge ratios of precursor ions and MS/MS fragmented ions were processed as described (Lin et al., 2008). We identified proteins using the Web-based search engine Mascot (http://www.matrixscience.com/search_form_select.html) against the Arabidopsis protein database in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/guide/). Only proteins with P < 0.05 by MS/MS ion search were considered significant hits. Proteins identified by both G-box and control element affinity chromatography were considered nonspecific and thus excluded from Supplemental Table 1 online. All constructs used in this study were confirmed by sequencing.

EMSA

To generate His-tagged bZIP16 protein, the bZIP16 coding sequence was amplified with the primers AtbZIP16-F-NcoI and AtbZIP16-R-XhoI (see Supplemental Table 3 online) from Arabidopsis cDNAs and cloned into the pET33b (+) vector (Novagen). Recombinant bZIP16-his6 protein was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified in its native form with use of nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid agarose following the manufacturer’s protocol (Novagen). EMSA was conducted as described (Yeh et al., 2002) with minor modification. In brief, the recombinant protein and 3′-end biotin-labeled G-box were coincubated at room temperature for 10 min in binding buffer (115 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 10 mM EDTA, 1 mM DTT, 50% glycerol, 0.5 mg/mL BSA, 0.5 μg/mL poly dI-dC, and 3 mM NaCl). DNA–protein complexes were separated by use of 5% Tris/Borate/EDTA PAGE and then transferred to nylon membrane (Millipore). The biotin-labeled DNA was detected using the Streptavidin antibody (Pierce) according to the manufacturer’s protocol.

Plant Materials and Growth Conditions

Seeds of wild-type Arabidopsis ecotypes Col-0, Ler, T-DNA insertion line (Alonso et al., 2003) SALK_044834 (bzip16-1), phyA-201, and phyB-5 were obtained from the ABRC. The Genetrap insertion line (Sundaresan et al., 1995) GT9934 (bzip16-2) was obtained from the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. bzip16-2 was crossed to phyB-5, phyA-201, pil5-1, and rgl2-5, separately, to generate the bzip16-2 phyB-5, bzip16-2 phyA-201, bzip16-2 pil5-1, and bzip16-2 rgl2-5 double mutants.

To generate bzip16-1/bZIP16 and bzip16-2/bZIP16 complementation lines, the 4.2-kb (−569 to +3630) genomic fragment of bZIP16 was amplified with the primers BamHI-gAtbZIP16-F and gAtbZIP16-NcoI-R from Arabidopsis genomic DNA and subcloned into a BamHI/NcoI-digested pCAMBIA1390 vector (CSIRO). The AtbZIP16-GFP construct was amplified with primers XbaI-AtbZIP16-F and BamHI-AtbZIP16-GFP-R from Arabidopsis cDNAs and cloned into an XbaI/BamHI-digested vector harboring the GFP sequence (Davis and Vierstra, 1998), kindly provided by I. Hwang (Pohang University of Science and Technology, Korea). The fragment of AtbZIP16-GFP was subcloned into a modified pCAMBIA1390 vector with the 35S promoter. The bZIP16 genomic fragment was introduced into bzip16-1 or bzip16-2 by floral dipping (Clough and Bent, 1998). The 35S:AtbZIP16-GFP construct was introduced into bzip16-1 mutant. To generate the bZIP16 overexpression line (bZIP16ox), the bZIP16-his6 construct was amplified with the primers XbaI-AtbZIP16-F and AtbZIP16-his6-SstI-R containing the synthetic sextuplet His tag sequence and subcloned into an XbaI-SstI–digested pCAMBIA1390 vector with the 35S promoter. The 35S:AtbZIP16-his6 construct was introduced into Col-0 by floral dipping. Three independent complementation and overexpression lines carrying a single transgene insertion were used for further analysis, and results for one representative line are shown. Sequences of primer used for construct generation are in Supplemental Table 3 online.

For hypocotyl measurement, surface-sterilized seeds on half-strength Murashige and Skoog medium with 0.8% agar were placed at 4°C for 3 d to synchronize the germination (see Supplemental Figure 2 online). After cold stratification, seedlings were grown in darkness or under various fluences of R, FR, blue, or white light under LD conditions (16 h light/8 h dark) for 4 d at 22°C. Hypocotyl length was measured by use of the NIH imaging software Image J, version 1.34. The means and standard deviations were calculated from 20 to 30 seedlings. Three biological repeats were performed for each experiment.

RNA Isolation and Analyses

Total RNA was isolated as described (Wang et al., 2011). For RNA gel blot analysis, 15 μg total RNA was denatured at 65°C for 10 min, separated on 1% formaldehyde-agarose gel, and transferred to a nylon membrane (GE Healthcare). The bZIP16-specific probe (nucleotides 764 to 1063) was amplified from Arabidopsis cDNA with the primers AtbZIP16-probe-F and AtbZIP16-probe-R (see Supplemental Table 3 online) by use of DIG RNA labeling mix (Roche) to incorporate DIG-11-UTP by PCR. The hybridization and signal detection were as suggested in the DIG System User’s Guide (Roche). Quantitative RT-PCR was performed as described (Wu et al., 2008). Sequences of primers used are in Supplemental Table 3 online.

Immunoblot Analysis

His-tagged full-length bZIP16 recombinant protein was used to generate polyclonal antisera in rabbits (LTK Biolaboratories). The bZIP16-specific antiserum was affinity purified on a bZIP16-conjugated column by use of the AminoLink Plus immobilization kit (Pierce) according to the manufacturer’s instruction. Total proteins were extracted as described (Shen et al., 2007; Chang et al., 2011). bZIP16 was detected with use of bZIP16-specific antiserum and horseradish peroxidase–conjugated anti-rabbit antiserum (Millipore). Endogenous α-tubulin was used as a loading control with alkaline phosphatase–conjugated antitubulin antiserum (Sigma-Aldrich). Chemiluminescence horseradish peroxidase substrate (Millipore) and alkaline phosphatase substrate (Roche) were used for signal detection.

Subcellular Localization of bZIP16

Nuclei and cell walls of 4-d-old etiolated seedlings of the bZIP16-GFP complementation line were stained with propidium iodide before confocal microscopy (Zeiss META 510; Carl Zeiss Micro-Imaging) with 488-nm excitation and 500- to 530-nm emission for GFP and 535- to 617-nm emission for propidium iodide signals.

Affymetrix ATH1 Genome Array Hybridization and Data Analyses

Total RNA was isolated from 4-d-old Ler and bzip16-2 seedlings grown under dark or 0.5 μE RL/LD conditions. The hybridization of the ATH1 Genome Array (Affymetrix) was as suggested by the manufacturer. Gene expression data for Affymetrix ATH1 were analyzed by GeneSpring GX10 (Agilent Technologies). Gene expression data for ATH1 were analyzed as described (Lin and Wu, 2004). The data sets have been deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information’s Gene Expression Omnibus (Edgar et al., 2002) and are accessible by the Gene Expression Omnibus Series accession number GSE30910.

GeneSpring 10 (Agilent) was used for ATH1 data normalization. Per-chip normalization was performed with MAS5, and per-gene normalization was calculated relative to median control samples (pairwise comparisons of Ler to its corresponding bzip16-2 data). Probes flagged as absent or with expression value <60 were eliminated from further analyses. Statistical analyses to examine the reproducibility of the data analysis performed in triplicate involved use of One Class Significance Analysis of Microarray (Tusher et al., 2001). Only genes with a false discovery rate <0.05 were selected for further analyses. The ratios of Ler to bzip16 for genes considered up- or downregulated were ≥2.0 or ≤0.5, respectively. The expression for genes differentially regulated between Ler and bzip16 were normalized to the median of all (12) samples, log2 transformed, and clustered by use of the k-means algorithm.

A P value of 0.01 was used as a cutoff to select cis-elements enriched in the 1-kb promoters of 275 bZIP16-regulated genes at the Anthena website (http://www.bioinformatics2.wsu.edu/cgi-bin/Athena/cgi/visualize_select.pl). Numbers of genes in the Arabidopsis genome harboring each overrepresented cis-element were retrieved with Pattern Matching at The Arabidopsis Information Resource website (http://www.Arabidopsis.org). A Fisher’s exact test was adopted to determine whether the enrichment was specifically in promoters of bZIP16-regulated genes but not the whole genome (P ≤ 0.05; see Supplemental Table 4 online).

Germination Assay

Germination assays were performed as described (Oh et al., 2004). Triplicate sets of 40 seeds for each line were surface sterilized, planted on half-strength Murashige and Skoog medium with 0.8% agar, and imbibed for 1 h at 22°C. For the phyA-dependent germination assay, imbibed seeds were irradiated with 0.5 W/m2 FR light for 5 min alone or placed in the dark for 2 d and then irradiated with 3 W/m2 FR light for 4 h to accumulate phyA. For the phyB-dependent germination assay, imbibed seeds were illuminated with 0.5 W/m2 FR light for 5 min, followed by 5 μE RL for another 5 min. Light-treated seeds were then placed in the dark and scored daily for germination for up to 5 d. Germinating seeds were determined according to radical protrusion. The means and standard deviations were calculated from three biological repeats.

ChIP-qPCR Assay

ChIP assays were performed as described (Morohashi et al., 2009) with minor modifications. In total, 600 mg of 4-d-old etiolated seedlings or 40 mg of seeds germinated for 12 h were cross-linked in 1% formaldehyde solution under vacuum for 20 min (for seedlings) or 1 h (for germinating seeds) and stopped by adding 2 M Gly to a final concentration of 0.1 M and continued vacuum for 10 min (for seedlings) or for 30 min (for seeds). Nuclei from germinating seeds were isolated before immunoprecipitation. Reverse cross-linking and DNA purification were performed as described (Kaufmann et al., 2010). The amount of each precipitated DNA and input DNA was determined by quantitative PCR with the specific primers in Supplemental Table 3 online.

Accession Numbers

Sequence data from this article can be found in the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative data library with the following locus identifiers: bZIP16 (AT2G35530), phyA (AT1G09570), phyB (AT2G18790), RGL2 (AT3G03450), PIL5 (AT2G20180), UBQ10 (AT4G05320), GASA2 (AT4G09610), HVA22B (AT5G62490), AHG1 (AT5G51760), EM1 (AT3G51810), EM6 (AT2G40170), STZ (AT1G27730), AAO1 (AT5G20960), CYP707A2 (AT2G29090), and ABI3 (AT3G24650). Gene expression data have accession number GSE30910.

Supplemental Data

The following materials are available in the online version of this article.

Acknowledgments

We thank Tai-ping Sun (Duke University), Giltsu Choi (Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology), and Jinrong Peng (Zhejiang University, China) for seeds of pil5 and rgl2 mutants; Inhwan Hwang (Pohang University of Science and Technology, Korea) for providing the GFP vector; and Erh-Min Lai, Tuan-hua David Ho, and Shih-Long Tu (Institute of Plant and Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taiwan) for helpful discussion. Proteomic mass spectrometry analyses were performed by the Core Facilities for Proteomics and Glycomics at the Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, supported by a National Science Council grant (NSC 98-3112-P-001-023) and the Academia Sinica. Affymetrix GeneChip assays were performed by the Affymetrix Gene Expression Service Laboratory, supported by Academia Sinica (http://ipmb.sinica.edu.tw/affy). We also thank Shu-Jen Chou (Institute of Plant and Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taiwan) for creating the 4×G-box clone and for technical support with gene expression profiling experiments. This research was supported by thematic grants to S.-H.W. from Academia Sinica (AS-97-TP-B03 and AS-100-TP-B01).

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

W.-P.H., H.-L.H., and S.-H.W. designed the research. W.-P.H. performed the research. W.-P.H. and S.-H.W. analyzed the data. W.-P.H. and S.-H.W. wrote the article.

Footnotes

  • The author responsible for distribution of materials integral to the findings presented in this article in accordance with the policy described in the Instructions for Authors (www.plantcell.org) is: Shu-Hsing Wu (shuwu{at}gate.sinica.edu.tw).

  • www.plantcell.org/cgi/doi/10.1105/tpc.112.105478

  • [C] Some figures in this article are displayed in color online but in black and white in the print edition.

  • [OA] Open Access articles can be viewed online without a subscription.

  • [W] Online version contains Web-only data.

Glossary

GA
gibberellic acid
ABA
abscisic acid
EMSA
electrophoretic mobility shift assay
bZIP
basic domain/leucine zipper
Col-0
Columbia-0
Ler
Landsberg erecta
RL
red light
LD
long-day
FRp
a pulse of far-red light
FR
far-red
Rp
a pulse of red light
R
red
ChIP-qPCR
chromatin immunoprecipitation–quantitative PCR
GFP
green fluorescent protein
MS/MS
tandem mass spectrometry
  • Received September 21, 2012.
  • Revised September 21, 2012.
  • Accepted October 3, 2012.
  • Published October 26, 2012.

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